A study of Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, the Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman and A Room of One’s Own by Virginia Woolf
Abstract
This research study engages in a detailed investigation and exploration of the conditions of women in England from the early years of the 19th century to the 2030s. The dissertation makes use of three very well-known literary offerings by female authors of those times, namely Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, Charlotte Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper and Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own.
Women during those years lived in a patriarchy and experienced enormous social, cultural, political, and institutional pressure to restrict their lives within domestic walls, both in their youth and in later years. They were denied education, prevented from holding property, could not vote to elect people of their choice in government, and prevented from engaging in literary or other types of activity. The three chosen authors made use of their enormous literary skills and sharply honed intellect to describe the difficulties faced by women, questioned the male-dominated world around them, resisted patriarchy, and showed the way forward for the feminist movement to steadily progress and grow.
The research makes use of historical context and investigates details about the social, political, and cultural environment of those times. It draws upon historical information, literary narrative and psychoanalytic theory to bring about the unique features of the environment, the impact it had upon the women of those days, the injustices and domination force faced by them, and how some of them questioned the patriarchy to forge a path for others to follow. Austen, for example, criticises the social environment of the time for denying women basic rights and for pressurising them to enter into marriages, regardless of their desires to achieve some sort of economic security. Gilman critically describes the domination of husbands over wives and the use of flawed medical theory to restrict women from stepping out of their domestic environment. Woolf uses essays to espouse feminism and the rights of women to engage in creative and literary pursuits.
Whilst these texts are diverse in their content, deal with different periods of history, and follow dissimilar structures, they bring out the challenges faced by women in their times and the urgent need to question and fight the patriarchy. The research locates these well-known texts in genuine social and historical settings and makes use of important feminist authors like Simone de Beauvoir and Elaine Showalter to describe the challenges faced by women during the Regency and Victorian eras and the period between the two wars, question the stifling, male-dominated, socio-economic environment in which they lived and underline the necessity to break out and live socially, culturally, and economically autonomous lives.
The concluding section dwells on the relevance of these famous literary pieces in the present day environment and the ways in which they inspire and will continue to motivate society to bring about increasingly greater parity between genders.
Summary
This paper engages in the examination and analysis of the depiction of females over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries in England, as portrayed by Jane Austen in Pride and Prejudice, Charlotte Perkins Gilman in The Yellow Wallpaper and Virginia Woolf in A Room of One’s Own. Notwithstanding their dissimilar literary forms like a novel by Austen, a short story by Gilman and a collection of essays by Woolf, the authors display the social and cultural expectations from females and the constraints they experienced in their lives, determined by various pressures and influences. The narrators of these literary pieces and their female characters display the actual status and lives of women, their freedom/ lack of freedom and their increasing requirement for economic and intellectual freedom. The chosen literary pieces, individually and jointly, stress upon the changing role of women; they have contributed substantially to the understanding of their identities and rights
Thesis Statement
This dissertation states that literary pieces like Pride and Prejudice, The Yellow Wallpaper and A Room of One’s Own do not just describe the norms and expectations that were applied to females in English society in the 19th and 20th centuries, but also function as thought-provoking and insightful examinations of the various psychological influences and social and cultural pressures on women. They highlight the insecure position of women in those periods and thus effectively question and challenge their traditional roles.
The authors strongly advocate the necessity for freedom – social, cultural, economic and intellectual- for women.
Critical Orientation, Secondary Material and Methodological Approach
This research study makes use of a multi-dimensional, holistic and critical approach to the research issue and strongly draws upon historical, as well as feminist literary criticism, and diverse psychological, especially psychoanalytic theories. These frameworks are used to navigate the interpretation of the chosen literary pieces, i.e. Pride and Prejudice by Austen, The Yellow Wallpaper by Gilman, and A Room of One’s Own by Virginia Woolf. Feminist literary criticism is used to examine and analyse the ways in which each author discusses and critiques the patriarchal setting and gender norms and standards of their own eras. This incorporates the examination of specific themes, namely the autonomy of females, the various constraints of the domestic roles that are imposed upon them and their search for social, cultural, economic and intellectual freedom. Historical critique is utilised to establish the contexts of the pieces within their overall socio-cultural settings (Showalter, 1998). The criticism is used to stress upon the role of historical occurrences in influencing the legal rights of women, their education and their social roles in literary works. ( Moi, 2002), (Gilbert and Gubar, 2000). Psychoanalytic critique has been informed by both Freudian and post-Freudian thoughts. These provide an understanding and deep insights into both the emotional and the mental backgrounds of the female narrators and characters.
This approach has been specifically chosen for for examining and analysing the work of Gilman and Wolf, who have centralised themes of psychological disturbance, mental health and repression. (Freud 1953).
The thesis furthermore draws upon several secondary information sources. These include various reflective and autobiographical pieces by the authors, especially the lectures, essays and diaries of Virginia Woolf, to comprehend their perspectives on authorship, creativity and gender (Woolf 1931). Various feminist texts like Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex (2011), Toril Moi’s Sexual/ Textual Politics (2002), Elaine Showalter’s A Literature of Their Own (1998), and Gilbert & Gubar’ The Madwoman in the Attic have been used extensively for providing the critical basis for the examination and analysis. Apart from these sociocultural and historical studies, pertinent to the 19th century, as well as the early years of the 20th century, (particularly those written by Barbara Kane in 1997 and Jane Lewis in 1984) have been extensively used to assist in describing the social constraints and influences experienced by females during the subject period.
Methodological Approach
A feminist methodological approach has been used for this study with a particularly strong emphasis on rigorous textual analysis. Several passages from each of the selected, texts have been taken up for critical examination to describe(1) the development of gender-based roles and the identities of women, (2) the use of the narrative voice and the ways it represents both internal resilience and conflict, (3) metaphor and imagery that is symbolic and associated with intellectual ambition and aspiration, creativity and confinement, (4) the purposive use of specific commentary by authors and intertextuality; more so in the essay-based form. This specific methodology has been used to relate textual analysis and interpretation with both theoretical and socio-cultural viewpoints and to examine the ways in which the three authors question the weaknesses and difficulties and challenges of the social positions of women. As also, the ways in which their critiques have assisted in shaping, evolving, understanding of gender roles.
Summary of Contents
This research paper studies, examines and analyses the depiction of females and the critiquing of gender roles in the English socio-cultural environment during the 19th and early 20th centuries through the literary works of Pride and Prejudice, (Austen), The Yellow Wallpaper, (Gilman), and A Room of One’s Own (Woolf). These literary pieces are studied through purposely chosen feminist perspectives, taking account of the cultural, social and historical influences that influenced and shaped perspectives and expectations of femininity.
The dissertation studies, chapter by chapter, the ways in which the three authors questioned and challenged patriarchal standards and thoughts and pressed for the emotional, intellectual, and economic liberty of women.
Introduction
This research paper engages in the exploration, examination, and critiquing of the depiction of women in three well-known literary pieces, Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper, and Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own. These literary pieces were written over the course of the 19th century and the early decades of the 20th century; this was a period characterised by social, cultural, and political developments, which affected and shaped the roles and perceptions of females in English society.
Each of these literary pieces has provided a unique viewpoint on female existence and has questioned and challenged the roles and expectations that were imposed on females during their lives. The authors have made use of deep insights and nuanced narratives to depict and portray the restrictions of their times and to engage in criticism that confronts the systemic discrimination faced by women during those periods.
This introductory chapter provides a narrative of the literary texts taken up for study. It clarifies the social and the historical context and analyses the development of feminist perspectives and thought. It also describes the critical structure and the methodological approach that have been adopted in this study.
Overview of Primary Texts
Austen’s Pride and Prejudice published in 1813 is one of the foremost literary offerings of the early decades of 19th century England. It engages in the exploration of various aspects of marriage, society, status, and gendered expectations through the eyes and experiences of Elizabeth Bennet, the protagonist. Whilst the novel is frequently discussed and praised for its romantic theme, it does present a pointed, yet understated critique of the various social restrictions placed upon women; with particular regard to economic dependence and marital requirements (Johnson, 19880.)
Elizabeth’s strong and intelligent character questions the period’s norm of the soft marriage-orientated and submissive women, making use of freedom, independence, moral clarity, and a strong sense of humour. Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper, written in 1892, is a short story placed in the American society of the late 19th century. It provides a powerfully written psychological critique of female domination and subjugation through the descent of the narrator into mental chaos. Whilst Gilman was American, her writing resonates strongly with the feminist problems faced by people in the Victorian and Edwardian periods in Britain. Gilman’s story challenges the patriarchal medical infrastructure and thought processes of the times and the social inclination to gag and restrict women, more so through the use of mental health practices (Golden, 2003).
A Room of One’s Own was written by Virginia Woolf in 1929. It differs from the other two chosen texts because it constitutes a series of essays that are strongly feminist and give voice to the psychological and environmental constraints faced by women in their quest for intellectual and artistic liberty. Woolf states that “a woman must have money and a room of her own, if she is to write fiction” (Woolf, 1929, page 6), thereby stressing upon the social and material conditions necessary for women to engage in creativity. Woolf strongly criticises the exclusion of females from academic and literary traditions in history and predicts the contemporary feminist context, i.e. the need for voice representation and intersectionality.
Socio-historical Context
The period of about 130 years, when the three authors wrote their pieces, were characterised by strong and rigid hierarchies about gender that placed women as intellectually and morally inferior to men. The lives of women were shaped and restricted by a variety of social and legal barriers. Their access to education was limited and they not only did not have the right to vote, but also very few rights in property. Marriage was thus frequently the primary way for women to obtain a certain amount of economic stability and stature, a situation that has been examined in detail in Pride and Prejudice by Austen; the doctrine of coverture ensured that the legal identity of a married lady was lesser and subordinate to her husband; this remained in place until the commencement of legal reforms in the late years of the 19th century (Holcombe, 1983). The emergence of industrialisation and urbanisation in the last decades of the 19th century, along with the expansion of the domestic ideology of the middle class resulted in the intensification of gender-based divisions.
Society and the authorities expected women to be domestic, passive and obedient; they were to be confined to the privacy of their homes, even as men dominated the work sphere and politics. The late years of Queen Victoria’s reign witnessed considerably increased apprehensions about the mental health of women, which was frequently described as nervous disorders and hysteria. These themes are explored very critically by Gilman in The Yellow Wallpaper (Showalter, 1985).
Considerable social alterations started occurring in the first quarter of the 20th century. These included the emergence of the suffrage movement, the acceptance of women into institutes of higher education and professions and considerably greater political activity. A Room of One’s Own was penned by Woolf after the First World War, during the initial feminist wave, and drove the need for women to actively contest their exclusion from intellectual and literary activity. Woolf depicts the frustrations faced by the new generation of women and their aspirations for autonomy, artistic freedom and recognition.
Emergence of Feminist Thought
This dissertation’s literary critique is underlined by the development of feminist theory; the focus of first wave feminism was on the political and legal rights of women and second wave feminism stressed upon cultural representation, consciousness and identity. All three authors engaged in feminist criticism of patriarchy in their writing, albeit using dissimilar historical settings and positions. Academics make the point that Austen’s novel can be categorised as proto-feminist, as she subtly criticises the dependence of women on marriage and challenges the limitations placed upon their personal liberty (Kerkham, 1983).
Gilman was an early social reformer and feminist and drew upon her own experiences with post-natal depression in order to fight for the autonomy of women in relationships and health. Woolf, whose literature was written in the course of the modernist period, blends feminist, Marxist and psychological concepts to query the material situations and epistemological marginalisation of women. (Moe 1985). Each of these literary works is not just a literary construction, but also a social, cultural and historical intervention that engages with the gender politics of the era.
Methodological and Critical Approaches
A multidisciplinary and critical approach has been adopted for this study, making use of feminist criticism, historical narrative and psychoanalytic theory. Feminist criticism has been utilised as the key analytical structure for the study; it focusses on the ways in which the chosen literary pieces display relationships between genders, question patriarchy and push for female independence. The publications of feminists like Elaine Showalter, Gilbert and Gubar and Tori Moi have been used for the development of the theoretical bedrock for the study. Gilbert and Gubar’s conceptualisation of “the mad woman in the attic” is specifically pertinent to the examination carried out in The Yellow Wallpaper, even as Showalter’s understanding of gynocriticism helps in the creation of a clearly female literary history (Gilbert and Gubar, 1979), (Showalter, 1985). The study makes use of historical criticism to contextualise each specific literary treatise within its particular social, political and cultural environment.
Making use of a variety of historical information sources on education, law, family and gender, this approach helps in the generation of a comprehension of the ways in which the texts have dealt with and reacted to existing concepts on power and womanhood. Lacanian and Freudian theory have been used to examine and interpret the sub-surface apprehensions and the conflicts experienced by the protagonists: especially in The Yellow Wallpaper; where the nervous breakdown of the narrator can be perceived to be a symbolic war against patriarchal oppression (Feldstein, 1992).
The adopted methodology furthermore makes use of textual examination of carefully chosen passages to portray the ways in which imagery, language and narrative detail has either strengthened or subverted the predominant gender thinking of the times. A number of autobiographical elements and commentaries by the authors have been used, more so in Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own, where the distinction between theoretical insight and personal experience has been purposely cloaked in ambiguity. The study makes use of secondary material in the form of feminist historiography, as well as the biographies of the three authors and literary articles that provide meaning to the texts and resonate with the culture of the times. The paper makes use of literary pieces that study the wider literary framework and the sharp exclusion of female perspectives from historical literary pieces. (Gillard and Gubar, 1979, Moe, 1985).
The thesis makes the point that the three chosen authors not only portray the gendered ideologies of the times in which they lived, but specifically questioned and resisted them. Their writings individually and jointly underline the insecure and fragile position of females in a patriarchal environment and ask for far more economic, social and intellectual liberty for females. The study examines the chosen literary works through interdisciplinary and feminist perspectives and aims to throw light upon the importance and relevance of their writing, as also the potential of literature to carry out gendered resistance and transform society.
Chapter 1 – Gender Rules and Societal Expectations in Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice.
Pride and Prejudice, written by Jane Austen in 1813, depicts a detailed and complex depiction of the roles of gender, social expectations and marriage in the early decades of English society in the 19th century. Austen uses sharply etched and nuanced characters, like those of Elizabeth Bennett, Mr Darcy, and several others to investigate the rather restricted opportunities that were available to women and analyses the unequal social structures that resulted in intense gender discrimination.
This chapter examines the ways in which Austen’s literary effort not only details the patriarchal social structure that existed during her time, but also gently and clearly delivers a feminist criticism of these; making use of psychological insights, historical information, literary criticism, the complex depictions of the lives of women, the role of marriage as an economic necessity and the social restrictions placed upon women.
To understand the context of gender and class in England during Austen’s time, it is necessary to obtain an understanding of Austen’s narrative of gender to examine the historical setting in which Pride and Prejudice was penned. English women during the Regency period, i.e. 1811 to 1820 possessed very restricted rights. They were not allowed to vote, owned property quite rarely and were frequently denied both scholastic education and remunerative jobs. Vickery (1998) informed that marriage appeared to be the only honourable option for middle and upper class women with limited financial wealth. The value of women in such a setting was frequently defined bo their prettiness, their reputation and their potential to marry well.
Austen’s world was one where the fate of not marrying, for a woman, could well be difficult. Old maids were objects of derision and no one wanted to be one. This intense social pressure is reflected in the condition of the Bennet family where the family estate was slated to pass to a distant relative because of the absence of a male heir, effectively leaving the wife and the five daughters homeless. Women lived without financial security until and unless they were able to marry men with financial security.
Austen makes use of the Bennet family’s condition to depict the unequal social, cultural and legal framework, which was discriminatory in nature and made lives difficult for women. Johnson, (1990), opines that Austen made use of sarcasm and irony to criticise a social environment that assessed the worth of a woman by her ability to marry well.
Marriage as a Social and Economic Requirement
Austen makes marriage an important theme of her book and approaches it through several prisms. Marriage, for some of the characters, is shown to be a romantic situation, whilst it is depicted as a financial imperative for others. The discord between these two perspectives is contained in the depiction of Charlotte Lucas who weds Mr Collins because of practical requirements. Charlotte, who is described as rather plain in her looks, and is at 27, getting on in years, accepts a proposal for marriage; not because of any type of attraction for her husband, but only because of economic and social security. Her decision to marry stems primarily from her yearning to live a life of reasonable comfort and illustrates the considerable sacrifices and adjustments that have to be made by women to avoid economic and social vulnerability.
Her life is contrasted with that of Elizabeth Bennet, the central protagonist of the novel and a progressive person. Elizabeth refuses two seemingly attractive proposals, the first from Mr Collins and the second from Mr Darcy, (his first proposal), on account of her conviction that compatibility was more important than material security. By doing so, she questions the commodification of wedlock and stands out as proud and upright. Elizabeth’s defiance of existing social expectations positions her apart from the stereotypical women of the time; timid, obedient and passive.
Her decision to marry, primarily for love and compatibility, questions and disputes the prevalent gender standards that gave primacy to financial security over emotional happiness. Collins, (1984), argues that Elizabeth was depicted as a fresh kind of female protagonist who demanded happiness rather than financial stability from marriage. It is, however, worth noting that Elizabeth’s fate in the book is in conformance with traditional standards, as she finally marries a man with considerable wealth and high social status.
Austen’s criticism of the existing social structure is clear, but does remain restricted by the norms of the period, where a secure, happy and stable life for women was not possible outside marriage.
Gender Expectations and the Accomplished Woman
Austen’s novel uses the concept of the accomplished woman as a motif to critique the restrictive and unfair limitations that were levied upon women. Miss Bingley describes a list of accomplishments that the ideal women of the times should possess, namely proficiency in singing, music, drawing, modern languages and personal department; these traits that had to be developed for women to appeal to men, rather than for their individual growth. Elizabeth conversely challenged the utility of such accomplishments and attitude used by Austen to underline the superficiality of existing social standards. The society of the period expected women to achieve these qualities, not because of intellectual growth or personal empowerment, but because of their utility as tools for appealing and attracting men. Fraiman, (1993) noted that the education given to women did not focus on knowledge but aimed to develop qualities to attract men.
Elizabeth’s humour, her sense of the ridiculous and her intellectual ability appeared to contradict these expectations. Whilst Elizabeth was not accomplished in the conventional sense. she commanded admiration and was respected by others because of her strength of character and her individuality.
Patriarchy and the Father Figure
Austen embodied social patriarchy in the character of Mr Bennett. Whilst Mr Bennett is frequently depicted in a positive and humorous way, his passive and non-interfering role in his family’s security underscores the fragility of the male guardian. He appears to be indifferent to the fates of his five daughters, more so with regard to marriage, financial security and social status. His attitude accentuates the borders of paternal authority. Austen uses his character to critique the effete and inadequate support provided by male figures to the women in their lives, who faced several types of inequalities and discrimination. Mr Collins does not escape gentle ridicule for his sense of patriarchal superiority. He seems patronising when he proposes to Elizabeth and his attitude is characteristic of a social structure, where men are given specific privileges, even as the autonomy of women is neglected. He assumes without question that Elizabeth would be obliged for his offer, because it provided her with considerable financial security. Elizabeth however rejects his proposal in an act that is radical and does not accept the right of men to dominate women.
Female Solidarity and Rivalry
Austen takes care to describe female solidarity through the strong bond that exists between Elizabeth and Jane, even as she illustrates the rivalry that is forced amongst women by patriarchy. Lady Catherine and Miss Bingley actively demand status and attention from men, frequently by deriding other women. This is brought about in Miss Bingley’s lack of friendliness towards Elizabeth, which arises from class differences and basic envy. Lady Catherine on the other hand is shown to be authoritarian and her interference in Elizabeth’s life is caused by the entrenchment of patriarchal values in privileged women. Her opposition to Elizabeth’s marriage to Darcy is not just out of class-based prejudice, but also from the entrenched belief that the entry of a person like Elizabeth into a higher level of society could disturb existing social structure. This shows how affluent women from higher levels of society stand up for and carry forward the gendered social structure that limit and constrain the lives of women.
Notwithstanding such patriarchal attacks on women, Austin does display that females continue to be resilient in difficult times. Elizabeth and Jane support each other, though the competitiveness amongst the other sisters is rather toxic. Austen thus makes the point that women have to display high levels of solidarity to be successful in fighting discrimination and restriction in society.
Austen shows class to be critically important in influencing the social expectations of women in society. Lady Catherine, and others like her, who are affluent and from the higher classes do exercise some power, even though it is derived from their family wealth and status. The Bennett sisters, who do belong to the middle classes and are part of the gentry do not have wealth and their situation is fragile and vulnerable. Their economic and social security thus depends to a great extent on their successful marriages. Elizabeth’s final coming together with Darcy, who is a person of considerable wealth and belongs to the aristocracy, is perceived to be a desirable and victorious romantic outcome. It however does strengthen the existing notion that marriage continues to be the only avenue for upward mobility for women.
Austen’s novel is somewhat ambiguous as it subtly pokes fun at existing social norms, but also strengthens them at its ending. McMaster, (1996), states that Austen displays the victory of the female spirit, but within the boundaries of acceptable behaviour, psychological insight and female subjectivity. Her insightful depiction of the psychology of her protagonists helps in the achievement of an in-depth understanding of the subjectivity of women. Elizabeth’s development towards self-awareness and her essential independence reflects a complexity of character that is not easy to categorise. Her transformation from stubborn pride to compassion and humility occurs side by side with Darcy’s emancipation of character and reveals the importance of personal development and moral uprightness for successful marriages.
Austen uses Elizabeth’s character to provide the archetype of a female character who has emotional depth, self-respect and intellectual awareness. Elizabeth is not aggressively rebellious, even though she questions the patriarchy that exists in the society of her types. She however moves through restrictions of her society and establishes her individuality. This measured and nuanced depiction places her as a proto-feminist in the eyes of many academics. Austen makes use of various issues associated with gender, marriage and social norms and values to critique the existing circumstances; with the help of sarcasm, irony, humour and dialogue. Elizabeth Bennet is the archetype of a progressive woman who can be emulated by the women of her times. She questions the roles that women were expected to play and is used for further feminist literary discourse.
Chapter 2 – Patriarchal Oppression and Psychological Entrapment in The Yellow Wallpaper
The Yellow Wallpaper, authored by Charlotte Perkins Gilman in 1892, is widely recognised as an inspiring piece of feminist writing, distinguished by its riveting depiction of the descent of a woman into mental illness on account of the restrictions imposed by patriarchal domestic expectations and medical treatment. Whilst Gilman’s book is American and not English, it provides important and in-depth information about the shared Anglo-American perceptions about gender ideologies towards the end of the 19th century. Written as a short story, it provides a shockingly chilling narrative and engages in extensive criticism of the medical and social discrimination that was faced by women with particular regard to the “rest cure”, a treatment that was frequently used for women who were thought to be suffering from neurasthenia or hysteria.
Gilman makes use of her experiences on account of postpartum depression and the treatment that was prescribed by Dr Mitchell, a person who is referenced in the book. The autobiographical nature of her narrative imparts credibility, authenticity and urgency to its message. Lane, (1997), articulated that Gilman wrote the story primarily to prevent people, especially women, from being driven to craziness. She draws considerable attention to the hazards of preventing women from voicing their feelings and suppressing their actual experiences and needs under the cloak of medical knowledge.
Gilman’s story is set in the closing years of the 19th century; it was a time when women were considered to be socially and legally inferior to men. Her story describes the life of a female storyteller, who remains unnamed and is restricted to a room in a large colonial house. She is kept in a nursery, which is converted into a bedroom, evidently to isolate her for her medical problems. John, her husband and also her physician, sets her physical and intellectual boundaries with oppressive, patriarchal authority. She is subjected to oppressive discrimination in her domestic environment and the yellow wallpaper is shown to symbolise her emotional and mental incarceration.
Gilman’s story has been studied through a variety of critical prisms; feminist critique is used to underline the dynamics of gender and imbalance in power, even as psychoanalytic studies focus on the mental decline of the narrator in reaction to oppressive social circumstances. Cultural and historical criticism has been used to stress upon the wider structure of the prevalent ideologies of gender, mental ailments and the domestic environment of the 19th century. The yellow wallpaper is a feminist piece of work that elevates trauma, experienced at a personal level into a wider statement of patriarchal repression.
This chapter engages in the study of the medical and domestic discrimination that women were subjected to with the help of psychological analysis, a carefully developed narrative structure and literary symbolism. Gilman studies the experience of the narrator and uses it as a metaphor for the condition of females in the Victorian, as also the early Edwardian periods; developing relationships between individual liberty, mental health and the feminist demand for social change.
Patriarchal Control and Medical Disempowerment.
Gilman brings out the medical and emotional impotency of the narrator under the patriarchal behaviour of John, her husband. John is not only her spouse, but also her doctor and makes use of emotional intimacy along with institutional dominance to subjugate his wife. His behaviour towards his spouse displays the existing patriarchal attitudes of the late 19th century where male supremacy intruded into medical and private areas. He states that she experiences nervous depression that is temporary in nature; this is an ambiguous diagnosis that dismisses the intensity of her mental distress. She is prescribed a rest cure, i.e. total intellectual and physical inactivity, which reveals a wider societal proclivity to stop women from articulating their feelings and limit their independence under the cover of care (Showalter, 1985). John’s approach is one of condescension, the use of language that tends to infantilise his wife. He states that his wife is actually a blessed little goose and makes fun of her thinking and her needs. He prohibits her from writing, working or socialising with others and advocates idea that the self-expression of females can be pathological or threatening. Showalter, (1985), stresses that such treatments went beyond medical interventions and worked as measures for ensuring ideological discipline and for strengthening the limits of socially acceptable femininity. Gilman’s story details her narrator’s progressive journey into madness, a clear consequence of the silence that is imposed upon her.
John denies legitimate expression to her intellectual and creative energies; and she becomes obsessed, more and more, with the oppressive and strange patterns on the wallpaper. This condition symbolises the repression of female experience and identity, which cannot be expressed within the limitations of their lives. Moi, (2002) observes that the narrative criticises the male medical gaze, which appears to know the bodies and minds of women better than they do themselves. The gendered imbalance of power in the relationship of the narrator with John is accentuated by her inability to decide about her own mental and physical health. Whilst she wishes to go out of the house or to take up writing to better her mood, John objects to these wishes and dismisses his wife’s instincts.
This depicts the reality that females were frequently kept out of literary activity and the making of decisions in medical issues. Holcombe (1983) argued that medical treatment, which was dominated by men, constantly portrayed women as fragile, irrational and unable to decide upon their own care. Gilman keeps the narrator unnamed to universalise her condition and portrays her as a representative of all women who are not provided with independence over their minds and their bodies.
The eventual psychotic disaster of the narrator is shown, not as a personal inadequacy but a revolt against an oppressive and intolerant social system. She attempts to reclaim her articulation through madness and questions the social structures that aimed to suppress her voice.
The Symbolism of the Wallpaper
Gilman’s narrative shows the yellow wallpaper as the key symbol of repression, entrapment as well as later resistance with regard to the women of that period. The wallpaper, which was initially considered to be only unpleasant by the narrator, progressively becomes associated with obsession and characterised by a sickly colour and complex, undesirable and indecipherable patterns; which display the mental condition of the narrator and the terrible logic of patriarchal thoughts. The narrator spends more and more time in her room alone and starts seeing a trapped female underneath the patterns of the wallpaper.
This pattern subsequently develops into a projection of her individual subconscious and gives body to her obsessive desire for self-expression and escape. The author’s imagery of the women creeping around behind the wallpaper is pivotal to the story and gives light to the concealed and subversive ways adopted by women to rebel against confinement. It suggests that social restrictions can push the identity of women into the area of the symbolic and the concealed.
Gilbert and Gubar, (1979), state that this duality, which exists between what is on the surface and what is below it, displays the literary practises used by women to write with the help of metaphors, symbolism and coded language to criticise the gender roles they were otherwise expected to support. The wallpaper can be viewed as both metaphorical and literal, It stands for the material reality of the prison of the narrator and the ideological struggle that occurs in her.
The decision of the narrator to tear the wallpaper resonates with strong, even violent action for liberation. It constitutes the zenith of the narrator’s revolt against her laid down identity. Tearing it apart, she aims to crush the symbolic obstacles that have incarcerated and confined her. She states “I have got out at last” at the ending of the story, “ in spite of you and Jane”.
This part of the narrative has been subjected to extensive debate and discussion by scholars. Some of them have interpreted it as the true name of the narrator and suggested the possibility of a split personality, even as others have looked at it as another female person; focussing upon the universality of the entrapment of females across geographies. The changeover of the wallpaper from a mere decorative instrument to a structure of oppression, and later to a condition of resistance, shows Gilman’s utilisation of the domestic area. Caine (1997) emphasises that Gilman engages in the feminisation and the politicisation of domesticity and reveals that the home, which is frequently described as the domain of a woman, can also function as a place for ideological domination and psychological trapping.
Madness as a Form of Feminist Protest
Gilman’s narrator descends into insanity; this does not constitute only as a portrayal of a mental ailment, but works as a symbolic revolt against the diverse medical and societal institutes that limit the actions and freedom of women within the structure of psychoanalytic and feminist critique.
Insanity does not depict loss of self and is rather shown to be a type of liberation and an avenue for the articulation of truths that cannot be voiced within the limits of rational discussion. Foucault 1965, Chesler 1972. Gilman brings about a total reversal of the conventional literary depiction of the mad woman in the attic as illustrated by Charlotte Bronte in Jane Eyre and positions the lack of rationality in females as a sane response to insane conditions.
Feldstein (1992) states that the story deals with madness as a means of expression for a woman and to give voice to the dissatisfaction she experiences with the social rules that are forced upon her. Gilman shows that the creative forces that exist within the narrator, as illustrated by her willingness to rationalise, interpret and comprehend the wallpaper are converted into signs of mental disease by her husband; they however, finally develop into the fountain of her deep insight and become critically important for her survival. The concealed diary maintained by her thus develops from being an instrument for narration to an action of rebellion, facilitating her reclamation of agency through language. With regard to the psychoanalytic viewpoint, the yellow wallpaper deals with the breakdown and fragmentation of identity by dominating and harmful social forces.
The narrator thus moves away from her unwilling role as wife and patient and finally identifies with the lady behind the wallpaper. This division of self can be examined through both Freudian and Lacanian theories for dealig that deal with the unconscious and as the coming back of suppressed desires and the collapse of the social order (Feldman, 1975).
Gilman thus takes back the area of female insanity from the domain of pathology and reworks it to be philosophical and political. The narrator was never mad in the clinical sense, but was led into insanity by the patriarchal system that did not accept her subjectivity. By embracing her descent into insanity, she developed a strong and radical revolution against the patriarchy that imprisoned her.
Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper is widely accepted to be a searing indictment of the domestic, social and medical control that was exerted over women in the closing years of the 19th century. The author uses the narrative voice along with symbolism and realism to display the terrible consequences of shutting down the voices of women and denying them independence. It criticises the gendered characteristics of the marital institution, the lack of effectiveness of the rest cure and the wider social and cultural ideas that pushed women to the borders of emotional and intellectual existence.
The narrator’s insanity is an individual tragedy, but also a symbolic triumph and brings out the lack of thought and rationality of the actual system that describes her as mad. The narrator destroys the wallpaper and by doing so rebels against the social boundaries imposed upon generations of women. Whilst Gilman has kept her ending ambiguous, she has advocated the power of resistance, even if it is desperate, against oppressive rules and standards. Gilman’s story resonates in present day feminist debate and reminds readers of the continuing role of endeavours for achievement of physical and intellectual freedom as well as psychological acceptance.
The transformation of individual ailment into social criticism through the yellow wallpaper helps in anticipating the various concerns that would subsequently become reflected in second wave feminism. It is thus not just a literary milestone but a truly inspirational feminist text.
Chapter 3 – Exploration of Intellectual Liberty and Feminist Philosophy and Voice in Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own.
A Room of One’s Own was written by Virginia Woolf in 1929 and is known as an inspirational piece of feminist writing that brings personal narrative, social examination and literary critique together.
Woolf’s offering is somewhat different from the other two taken up for discussion in this thesis, because it constitutes a number of extended essays rather than fictional stories, long or short. Nevertheless, her writing constitutes a strong and definitive literary work that deals with the exclusion of females from areas related to literary creativity and intellectual freedom. Woolf’s examination and analysis of inequality between genders in areas of creative liberty and entrenched patriarchy is taken up and explored in this section with the help of historical, psychological and feminist prisms.
She published her collection of essays between the two world wars; it was a period marked by progress of the suffragette movement, even though women were yet to achieve broader access to education, jobs, professional growth and property ownership. She makes use of historical exploration, literary satire and imagined characters to create a distinctive treatise on the history and present-day position of the feminist movement in the Anglo-American sphere.
Woolf uses “a room of one’s own”, metaphorically for the intellectual, social and economic liberty necessary for women to develop into meaningful thinkers and writers. Her work gives voice to the legacy of feminism and forecasts what can be expected of women in literature
Historical and Social Context
A room of one’s own was written and put together by Woolf during a period when the feminist movement had made some progress in furthering women’s rights. The passing of the Representation of the People Act in 1918 provided suffrage to females over 30 and this was extended to all women aged more than 21 by 1928. Notwithstanding such progress, deeply entrenched social and cultural attitudes thwarted women from increasing their presence, both in the domestic and in the public sphere. Woolf, as a member of the Bloomsbury Group, had some privileges, but was upset with the deeply entrenched systemic obstacles that women, especially from the working class, and those wishing to take up the literary profession, faced.
Woolf refers to the continuous historical occurrences of inequalities on a number of occasions in the essay in order to reveal how women were, over centuries, excluded from good education, financial independence and cultural liberty. Her narrative about Judith Shakespeare, the imaginary sibling of William, illustrates the unhappy impact of institutional obstacles on female genius. Woolf puts forward the case that Judith was as bright and as gifted as her brother, but was inevitably put down, suffocated and stifled by the denial of education and was forced to enter into an undesired marriage. She committed suicide because she found it impossible to bring forth her creativity in the patriarchal environment of those times (Woolf, 1929).
Woolf details a series of reasons for the exclusion of women from the social, economic and political sphere to explain, not only their unavailability in the literary world, but also the numerous internalised restrictions that they had to fight and overcome. Showalter, 1977) stated that the literature of women was historically influenced by male-dominated, hostile institutions and the lack of role models. Woolf thus brings together feminist in-depth concepts with historical examination to create the foundation for subsequent advances in feminist literary achievement.
Her narrative strategy.
Woolf’s book contains several interrelated essays that bring polemic, autobiography and fiction together. The adoption of this hybrid approach helps her in the exploration of gender inequality, not just through her text, but also with the help of deeply insightful, political and philosophical debate. She argued that a woman should have money and a room of her own to write fiction, criticising both spatial and economic deprivation as strong barriers to the achievement of intellectual liberty by women.
Woolf develops her argument through the aegis s of a long imaginary lecture that was delivered again at imaginary colleges for women of Oxbridge. The narrator in this case is a fictionalised version of herself; she describes her journey reflectively, even as she examines the various historical and material environmental boundaries that have choked and silenced female writers. She makes use of a mix of empathy, sarcasm, satire and irony to describe the structural reasons, namely economic reliance, educational denial and institutionalised misogyny; which have constantly stopped women from fulfilling their creative and intellectual ambitions.
Woolf devotes a section of her collection of essays to the imaginary life led by Judith Shakespeare, the sibling, the fictional sibling of William. Whilst Judith was as talented and gifted as her brother, she was denied education, independence and social liberty and was driven to end her life; her genius and her potential for greatness remained unrealised. Woolf uses this imaginary character to develop a compelling example of the millions of women whose potential has been destroyed by a patriarchal society through history.
Judith’s imagined life brings attention to the individual burden imposed by patriarchy through the suppression of women, as also to the cultural desert that is created by denying voice to women. Woolf (2000) pointed out that a woman who was born with considerable gifts and abilities in the 16th century would have become insane, killed herself or lived out her life in a lonely dwelling outside a village, castigated and ridiculed as a combination of a witch and a wizard. She blends polemics, debate and imaginary biography to underscore the tragic fallout of gender-based discrimination and injustice.
Woolf makes use of abstract theory, as well as an effective storytelling style to obtain the reader’s empathy for Judith and the historical deprivation to which women have been subjected. This writing technique is in line with the theories of feminism that focus on experiential and subjective knowledge, rather than positivist and detached narratives. She uses an imaginary storyteller to strengthen commitment to a feminine type of debate, contesting conventional academic approaches with fluidity and multiplicity.
Literary Critique and the Tradition of Male Authorship.
Virginia Woolf’s critical analysis of the literary environment with its active discrimination against women is not just hard-hitting but also transformative. She sharply questions the male-dominated approach that has pushed the voices of women to social and literary margins. She examines the writing of well-known male authors to underline the widespread gendered biases that have influenced literature down the centuries. Woolf informs that the lack of presence of women in literature was certainly not ao account of lack of ability and talent, but because of the entrenched barriers that discouraged them from entering writing and publication. She uses rhetorical questioning to accentuate the lack of connection between the writing of famous male authors and the lived experiences of females.
She repeatedly criticises the depiction of females in literature, who are mostly portrayed through the eyes of male authors. Women, she says, are shown as decorative and passive creatures, or as barriers to male heroes. Such incorrect and damaging portrayals strengthen patriarchal entrenchment and reduce the worth and complexity of female characters. Woolf questions the conceptualisation of literary brilliance as an intrinsically male quality and puts forward the argument that the framing of genius has been done to ensure the exclusion of women. She states that geniuses like Shakespeare’s cannot stem from undereducated, servile and labouring people (Woolf 1929). This accentuates the various socio-economic reasons for hindering the creative expression of women.
Comparison of Woolf with Other Feminist Thinkers.
The ideas put forward by Woolf converge and diverge with those of other well-known feminists. Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex, published in 1949, examines the societal roles that are imposed on women and the putting together of womanhood. Beauvoir’s assertion that a woman is not born a woman, but becomes one, is in agreement with Woolf’s examination of the various social constructs that define and restrict the identities of women.
Woolf and de Beauvoir focus on the significance of achievement of economic liberty by women. Woolf states that a women need money and a room of one’s own to engage in creative literary work, even as de Beauvoir argues that financial independence is critically important for women to move beyond traditional roles and realise their potential, Woolf’s approach, however, appears to be literary and symbolic, stressing on the fictional space that is needed for female writers whilst de Beauvoir uses an existential and philosophical framework. Notwithstanding such differences, both these writers have contributed considerably to feminist debate and continue to drive modern-day feminist thought, the intertextual framework of Austen, Gilman and Woolf.
There is little doubt that Woolf’s room of one’s own can be included in a wider literary tradition that incorporates the writing of Austen and Gilman. Austen’s offering engages in the subtle criticism of the restricted opportunities that were made available to women in the early 19th century in England and draws attention to the compelling social pressures that were used to ensure that women married for economic stability. Gilman’s book delivers a nerve-wracking portrayal of a woman’s journey into insanity driven by patriarchal marital structures and oppressive medical practices. Woolf has acknowledged Austen’s literary contribution and praised her capability to write, in spite of the restrictions of her environment. She stated that Austen’s writing was sans hatred, bitterness, fear, protest and preaching (Woolf, 1929). She furthermore focused upon the resilience and subtlety in Austen’s writing. Gilman’s narrative is conversely strongly critical of entrenched patriarchal structures. She makes use of the narrator’s mental problem to display the disastrous consequences of gender roles.
Woolf’s essays add to these viewpoints by offering a theoretical structure for articulation and a psychological framework for creative expression by women. These three literary efforts together underline the diverse and multi-dimensional challenges faced by women in developing their creative and intellectual liberty. All the authors press for a restructuring of societal expectations to make place for women and celebrate their contribution to literature and to society.
Conclusion
This research study engaged in the exploration of the portrayal of women in three literary classics authored by women. Namely Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, Gilman’s The Yellow WallPaper, and A Room of One’s Own by Virginia Woolf.
The study examined the ways in which these chosen literary pieces represented, examined, analysed and critiqued gender norms and standards of the 19th and the early 20th centuries. Making use of textual examination and analytical, psychological, historical and feminist criticism, the dissertation makes the point that women have over the centuries suffered from burdensome, damaging and restrictive constraints, imposed upon them by a patriarchal society. These works have additionally provided intense criticism of the deeply entrenched patriarchal systems and pressed for bringing about immense change in the status and roles of women. Each of the selected literary gems contains a distinct perspective and adds to the debate and discussion on gender biases, social expectations and patriarchy.
Pride and Prejudice is frequently thought of as a lovely and satisfying romantic novel, but it actually engages in subtle and not so subtle criticism of the social, cultural and economic pressures imposed upon women in England during the Regency. Elizabeth Bennet, Austen’s chosen protagonist questions the conventional perspectives of femininity and presses for his independence. She shows her preference for personal compatibility and understanding over the achievement of financial security in marriage and her actions and her demeanour reflect intellectual equality with the male characters. Austen’s nuanced depiction of marriage as a social requirement and a vehicle for achievement of independence underscores her knowledge of the limitations imposed upon women, as well as her disagreement with them.
The yellow wallpaper, Gilman’s hard-hitting masterpiece provides a disturbing and urgent portrayal of the psychologically disastrous outcomes of unthinking patriarchal oppression. Gilman displays the anguish experienced by the unnamed narrator during her journey to insanity. She uses this journey to point out the terrible consequences of the existing marital and medical systems used to discriminate against women, as well as infantilise and control them. The narrator who is made to undergo a rest cure symbolises purposeful silencing of the thoughts and voice of women.
Gilman makes use of gothic illustrations and a broken narrative to bring forth the internal distress and despair experienced by females on account of the denial of liberty and the right to pursue intellectual activity. She uses the experience of one women for bringing about considerable changes in the existing patriarchal system.
In A Room of One’s Own, Woolf takes on male patriarchy by using the essay form of writing to mix her own reflections with the use of appropriate theory and pushes for providing the intellectual and material environment essential for creativity. Her main argument, that a woman had to possess money and space on her own to write literature, goes beyond literal depiction and incorporates the wider issues of elimination of psychological oppression, achievement of financial autonomy, and accessing of educational facilities. She traces the removal of women from the history of literature and questions the male dominated literary environment.
Woolf criticises the happenings of the past and provides a path for feminist literary criticism in the future. Her outpouring of empathy serves to close the gap between the subtle strokes of Austen and the anguish of Gilman; she meshes scholarly knowledge with brilliant prose to push for equality between men and women in creative and intellectual work. The three chosen literary pieces provide a continuum of feminist dissatisfaction with their conditions and their resistance; reflecting the developing awareness of female writers who question the barriers and limitations of their individual eras.
The characters developed by the three literary masters, both fictional and essay orientated, show strong resilience in the face of enormous environmental constraints and challenge the expectations that are imposed upon them. They push for the achievement of personal and intellectual liberty and reboot the potential of female identity.
The research paper has striven to highlight the ways in which the three authors have added to the debate and discourse on gender equality and breaking patriarchal barriers. It has made use of feminist scholarship, especially Showalter and de Beauvoir to illustrate the ways in which literature can work, both as a representation and a reaction to the gendered environment.
The three authors portray the distress of women and move forward to question social structures, gender roles and power dynamics. Their relevance continues to be strong in the present day, notwithstanding the advances made in the areas of feminism, gender equality and women’s rights. Several of the challenges addressed by Austen, Gilman and Wolfe, like for example, access to education, gendered expectations, and economic challenges continue to persist across continents. These texts thus do resonate with present day readers on account of their literary brilliance, as also their articulation of the problems faced by women with regard to identity, liberty and social justice.
To conclude, this research paper makes the point that the three literary pieces cannot be seen merely as literary collections of their eras, but as basic and inspirational feminist outpourings that continue to question, criticise and remake the roles of women in society. Their impact is enduring and continues to close the gap between personal writing and political commentary; they continue to inspire critical thinking and give power to millions of readers to continue with the movement to bring about freedom and equality for women. Austen, Gilman and Wolfe have certainly left behind a legacy of revolution, resistance and transformation that is and will be pivotal in the continuing struggle for achievement of women’s rights.
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